Table 4 A summary of KG construction approaches for miscellaneous healthcare

[120]

A generic medical KG of patient visits.

BMM, BiLSTM-CRF and pattern recognizer

Nine predefined relations

Schema-free

Southwest Hospital in China: 16,217,270 de-identified visits of 3,767,198 patients

#n: 22,508

#e: 579,094

R, P, F1, and NDCG

• KG embedding was designed and limited to Bi-LTSM without considering other state-of-the-art techniques.

• The evaluation was mainly conducted on the embedded components.

• Besides the preliminary discussion on the applications, there is a lack of an overall evaluation of the KG.

[121]

KG of online EMR and emergency department

N/A

N/A

Schema-free

BIDMC dataset and EMRs from an emergency department

#n: N/A

#e: N/A

F1 and the area under the precision-recall curve

• The provided statistics are on the sources of the KG; the stats on the KG in terms of entities and edges are missing.

• There is no discussion on the mechanism followed to construct the KG in terms of entities and relations.

[133]

Smart Healthcare Management

CRF

Manual and classification-based algorithms

Schema-based

Chinese healthcare websites^{Footnote 47Footnote 48},^{Footnote 49}

#n: 1,169

#e: 9,707

R, P, and F1

• The resultant KG can be consolidated with information about disease and drugs and link them with symptom entities.

[128]

Q&A

BILSTM-CRF

Manually

Schema-free

EMRs from a hospital in Shanghai

#n: 44,111

#e: 203,308

R, F1 and Accuracy

• Lack of comparative study of the model.

• Limited practicability of the system

• Limited size and pretreatment of the corpus

[129]

Q&A

BiLSTM + CRF

Schema-free

National Service Platform for Famous Old Chinese Medicine Experience^{Footnote 50}

#n: N/A

#e: N/A

Case study and Hitration

• Poor KG with a minimal number of entities and relationships,

[42]

Q&A

Plausible reasoning

Schema-free

BioASQ, DrugBank, Disease Ontology, and SemMedDB

#n: N/A

#e: N/A

Domain expert’s verification

• Insufficient evaluation,

• evaluating the performance of query rewriting algorithm does not exist

[130]

Q&A

Automatic mapping

Schema-free

Chinese medical websites

#n: 18,687

#e: 88,858

Case study

• Poor discussion on extraction of entities and relationships.

• The QA system does not exhibit utility due to inapplicable results.

[131]

Q&A

Jieba^{Footnote 51}

Automatic mapping

Schema-free

A medical company (YiFeng Pharmacy^{Footnote 52})

#n: 34,788

#e: 601,475

Training and decision accuracy, cost, and time

• The construction of KG is not validated.

• The system can answer one intention per question and cannot thus answer questions with multi-intensions.

[146]

COVID-19 Clinical Research

Stanza’s NER^{Footnote 53}

Stanza’s Bi-LSTM

Schema-free

Artificial Intelligence in Medicine

#n: N/A

#e: N/A

Baseline comparison

• Lack of statistics on entities and relationships,

• Poor KG validation method