Exploration of issues, challenges and latest developments in autonomous cars

Journal of Big Data

Table 2 This table provides a classification of autonomous vehicles based on the levels of autonomy as per the standard set by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)

Reference No	Level	Name	Technologies	Sensors
–	0	Driver Only	–	–
[3, 39]	1	Assisted	Active Cruise Control (ACC) Lane Departure Warning System (LDWS)	Ultrasonic Sensor Long Range Radar (LRR) Camera
[39]	2	Partial Automation	Lane Keep Assist (LKA) Park Assist (PA)	All Sensors from Level – 1 Short Range Radar (SRR)
[9, 39]	3	Conditional Automation	Automatic Emergency Braking (AEB) Driver Monitoring (DM) Traffic Jam Assist (TJA) Dead Reckoning (DR)	All Sensors from Level – 2 LIDAR Long Distance Camera Stereo Camera Thermal Camera
[39]	4	High Automation	Sensor Fusion	All Sensors from Level—3
[39]	5	Full Automation	Automatic Pilot (AP)	All Sensors from Level—3

The SAE has defined six levels of autonomy, ranging from Level 0 (no automation) to Level 5 (fully autonomous). The table presents each level along with a brief description of the level of automation provided by the vehicle, and examples of features that are commonly found at that level. The table is a useful tool for understanding the different levels of autonomy and the capabilities of autonomous vehicles at each level. It can be used as a reference for comparing different autonomous vehicles based on their level of autonomy and understanding the current state of the technology